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运动医学与兴奋剂研究杂志

体积 5, 问题 3 (2015)

研究文章

The Effect of the Steroid Era on Major League Baseball Hitters: Did It Enhance Hitting?

Brandon J Erickson, Adam Yanke, Brett Monson and Anthony Romeo

Background: The “steroid era” in Major League Baseball (MLB) was a time when drug testing for performance enhancing drugs (PED) was not routinely performed.

Purpose: To determine if there was a correlation between the steroid era and home runs, batting average, and isolated power (ISO) in MLB players.
Methods: Home run, batting average, and ISO data from 1973 to 2012 was collected and analyzed. The data from the steroid era 1993-2002 was compared to the pre steroid eras 1973-1982, 1983-1992, and post steroid era 2003-2012.
Results: There was no statistically significant increase in the number of home runs (HR) hit by the American League (AL), National League (NL) or overall in MLB. There was no statistically significant increase in the ISO or highest yearly single player HR total during the steroid era. There were significantly more players who hit 40 or more HR per season during 1993-2002 compared to each of the other time periods (p<0.002). Throughout all time periods, there was no significant change in batting average.
Conclusion: There was a significant increase in players who hit more than 40 HR in a single season during the steroid era compared to before and after this time period.
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Doping for Chess Performance

Sighart Golf

During a chess game, the needed energy is first derived instantly from ATP and creatine-phosphate, then within a few seconds later from glycogen stores in brain, glycogen, muscle and liver and finally, 1-2 hours later from adipose tissue. Anaerobic oxidation of glucose-derivative from glycogen delivers energy 6 times faster than aerobic oxidation of glucose and oxidation of fatty acids; correspondingly, mental activity can perform as well 6 times faster as long as glycogen is available.

 
The mental profile of chess players correlates with cerebral processes such as attention, conflict solution, memory,
motivation and recognition, which together constitute a specific chess-domain expertise.
 
A chess player may compete best when a) regularly physical exercise is carried out to compete in strenuous chess tournaments and to stimulate mental cognition, b) super compensated glycogen is accumulated in brain, muscle and liver by corresponding nutrition and physical and mental activities, and c. an active mental disposition is available for complex brain tasks during chess by complementary treatment schemes e.g., cogni-tive enhancement (CE) by chesstraining with chess boards, chess books, building chess images, visual observation of chess games, vocational training with chess, metacognitive training, and additionally regular light physical stress.
 
An illicit improvement of brain performance for chess playing may be achieved by several measures:
1. Increase of O2 supply by therapy with erythropoietin (EPO) for chess tournaments at high altitudes and for
chess players with lung diseases
2. Increase of body glycogen by therapy with insulin
3. mental stimulation by caffeine
 
AAS, anabolic agents, amphetamines, nicotine and cocaine have no proven effect on quality of chess playing. Many steroid- and proteohormones such as cortisol, testosterone, ACTH, EPO, GH, hCG, IGF-I, Insulin, LH, present positive effects on brain development and cognition only when present in natural concentrations during development of brain. Pharmaceutical preparations show positive effects only at low baseline cognition. With elevated concentrations, these hormones present negative effects on mental cognition.
 
Actual CE drugs have effects only with persons at low cognitive baseline. With normal persons, CE is still below clinical significance.
 
Regular non-medical use of steroid and proteohormones in elevated concentrations and CE-drugs must also consider numerous side effects ranging from simple metabolic disturbances through cardiac problems to cognitive decline to tumorgenesis and sudden death.

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